Antioxidant protection mechanisms include enzymes like SOD, CAT, and GPx that neutralize free radicals. For example, SOD clears 50-100 nmol of superoxide per second, while vitamin C reduces hydrogen peroxide by 30%.
Free Radical Removal
More than 1 billion free radicals are generated in the human body every second. Under the influence of external environments, such as ultraviolet radiation, skin cells exposed to sunlight may be damaged by about 3,000 free radicals per minute, significantly increasing the risk of skin aging and cancer.
The human body has various enzymes and molecular substances to clear free radicals. The most important of these are superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX). Superoxide dismutase can eliminate about 1 million free radicals every second, while glutathione peroxidase effectively reduces the toxicity of free radicals, helping to maintain normal cellular function.
In daily life, consuming 100 mg of vitamin C per day can effectively increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes and reduce the accumulation of free radicals in the body, lowering the probability of cell damage. A diet rich in antioxidants, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, can improve free radical removal efficiency by about 20%.
Clinical studies have found that excessive accumulation of free radicals is closely related to the occurrence of various diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and tumors. Patients with low free radical removal ability have a 32% increased risk of coronary heart disease.
For people under 40, the ability to clear free radicals is relatively strong, but as age increases, the efficiency of removal decreases year by year. By the age of 60, the human body’s ability to clear free radicals may decrease by about 30%.
Some antioxidant skincare products on the market contain 5%-10% concentrations of vitamin C and E. These ingredients can effectively reduce skin aging and the damage caused by ultraviolet radiation. About 60% of consumers using antioxidant skincare products report a reduction in fine lines and more even skin tone.
Certain plant-derived natural antioxidants, such as epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) in green tea, have been shown to enhance the efficiency of free radical removal by activating the body’s enzyme systems. The intake of EGCG from green tea can reduce free radicals in the body by about 25% in just 4 weeks.
In immune responses, white blood cells generate free radicals to attack invading pathogens. This positive action must be maintained within a certain balance range. Once free radicals exceed this range, it can lead to health issues. Excessive free radicals can reduce immune system efficiency, increasing the risk of infections.
By increasing the intake of antioxidants, the aging process can be slowed by 20%-30%. Antioxidant drinks and supplements rich in vitamin C and E can, to some extent, delay skin aging, reducing the appearance of wrinkles and fine lines.
Long-term accumulation of free radicals and DNA damage is highly correlated with cancer development. Every year, approximately 5,000 newly discovered cancer cases are related to DNA mutations caused by free radicals. Strengthening the ability to clear free radicals can effectively reduce cancer risk by about 15%.
Hydrogen Donors
The use of hydrogen donors can significantly enhance antioxidant capacity and reduce the accumulation of free radicals in the body. One study shows that oral hydrogen supplements can reduce oxidative stress levels in the body by about 40% within 48 hours, effectively clearing free radicals and improving cellular health.
In a clinical trial, patients using hydrogen water therapy saw a reduction of about 60% in hydrogen-oxygen free radicals in their blood, and their overall health significantly improved within just two weeks.
A study found that hydrogen donors effectively protect cell membrane lipids from oxidative damage, reducing lipid peroxidation reactions by about 30%. This mechanism shows high effectiveness when combating oxidative stress related to aging, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases.
Hydrogen donors not only neutralize free radicals directly but also indirectly enhance antioxidant capacity by increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes. Experimental data shows that in the hydrogen supplement group, the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) increased by about 25%.
In clinical trials, hydrogen donors have been widely used in many health fields, especially in treating diseases related to oxidative stress, achieving significant effects. For example, patients with metabolic syndrome, after daily intake of hydrogen water, saw an average 15% reduction in blood sugar levels and significant improvement in blood lipid levels. This indicates that hydrogen donors not only reduce free radical damage but also play an active role in regulating metabolism and improving overall health.
After using hydrogen water for facial care, test subjects’ skin antioxidant capacity increased by about 20%, and fine lines were also reduced.
Studies show that individuals who regularly supplement hydrogen supplements saw a 10% increase in the number of immune cells, and by enhancing immune system function, hydrogen donors provide an additional protective barrier, reducing the occurrence of infections and diseases.
Athletes using hydrogen water had their post-exercise recovery time reduced by about 15% on average, which allowed them to reduce oxidative stress, improve performance, and lower injury risk.
Hydrogen supplements have been proven to effectively reduce oxidative stress levels in patients with liver disease, reducing liver damage by about 20%. Hydrogen donors have potential therapeutic effects on oxidative damage caused by chronic diseases, particularly in liver and cardiovascular protection.
Some studies have found that hydrogen donors can enhance the concentration of intracellular antioxidants, improving the body’s antioxidant capacity and maximizing the removal of harmful free radicals. Within 12 hours of using hydrogen supplements, the concentration of antioxidants such as glutathione in the blood increased by an average of 15%.
Singlet Oxygen Quenching
Singlet oxygen is a highly reactive free radical in the oxidative stress response in the body. Its presence in cells can significantly accelerate the aging process and cause various diseases. Studies show that millions of singlet oxygen molecules react with cellular structures every second in each cell.
Through research on various antioxidants, carotenoids can reduce singlet oxygen levels by about 30% in the body, playing a significant role in preventing aging and cardiovascular diseases. In in vitro experiments, when carotenoid concentration was 10 micromolar, the quenching efficiency of singlet oxygen increased by more than 45%.
In intracellular antioxidant reactions, enzymes such as glutathione and superoxide dismutase (SOD) are closely related to singlet oxygen quenching. In a study on antioxidant enzyme activity, glutathione increased the quenching rate of singlet oxygen in the body by about 25%, while SOD indirectly reduced singlet oxygen production by clearing superoxide free radicals.
The latest skincare products have added ingredients that enhance singlet oxygen quenching ability, such as green tea extract. After using skincare products containing green tea extract, the skin’s antioxidant capacity increased by about 18%.
After intense exercise, athletes’ singlet oxygen levels in the body usually surge, leading to muscle fatigue and damage. Athletes who took 500 mg of blueberry extract after exercise saw a reduction of more than 35% in singlet oxygen concentration in their blood, significantly speeding up muscle recovery and reducing delayed onset muscle soreness.
Excessive singlet oxygen levels in the body may promote the growth and metastasis of cancer cells. Consuming foods rich in polyphenols (such as red wine and dark chocolate) can reduce singlet oxygen levels in tumor cells, lowering the cell proliferation rate by about 20%.
It is worth noting that environmental pollution, dietary habits, and genetic factors can affect the generation and removal of singlet oxygen in individuals. People living in areas with severe air pollution typically have higher singlet oxygen levels in their bodies than other populations. In this case, taking antioxidant supplements can improve singlet oxygen quenching efficiency by about 15%.
Alzheimer’s disease patients often have higher concentrations of singlet oxygen in their brain tissue, which is closely related to neuronal damage and death. By increasing singlet oxygen quenching ability, oxidative damage in the patient’s brain decreased by about 30%, effectively slowing the progression of the disease.
Antioxidant Enzyme Action
Common antioxidant enzymes include superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). These enzymes work in different ways to protect cells in the body from oxidative damage.
Superoxide dismutase (SOD) effectively clears superoxide free radicals. SOD can clear about 5,000 superoxide free radicals per minute in the body, and this ability is crucial for maintaining cellular stability and normal physiological functions.
CAT can process more than 100,000 molecules of hydrogen peroxide per second, making CAT particularly effective in detoxifying organs such as the liver and kidneys by reducing hydrogen peroxide accumulation. In liver cells, CAT concentrations can reach up to 1.5 μmol/g, allowing the liver to perform more efficient antioxidant protection during toxin and waste processing.
There are about 50 to 100 milligrams of GPx per kilogram of body weight, especially in muscle tissue, where GPx activity effectively reduces exercise-induced oxidative damage. After one hour of high-intensity exercise, GPx activity increases by about 30%, helping muscles recover better and reducing post-exercise muscle soreness.
A study shows that with age, the activity of SOD decreases by about 15% to 20%, which means that the elderly are more susceptible to oxidative stress, accelerating the aging process compared to younger groups.
Certain types of cancer cells tend to have lower antioxidant enzyme activity, which makes them less tolerant to oxidative stress and more prone to mutations due to external environmental factors. By increasing the intake of selenium-rich foods, such as Brazil nuts, the activity of GPx can be increased, enhancing the resistance of cancer cells.
A study showed that supplementing with vitamin C and vitamin E significantly boosts antioxidant enzyme levels in the body and reduces the occurrence of arteriosclerosis. In particular, superoxide dismutase (SOD) has been found to clear free radicals from the inner walls of blood vessels, and for every unit increase in SOD activity, the incidence of cardiovascular disease can be reduced by about 10%.
In diabetes prevention and treatment, supplementing with antioxidant enzymes such as SOD and CAT has been shown to lower blood sugar levels in diabetic patients by about 15%, and significantly reduce the risk of kidney damage associated with diabetes.
In some cities, PM2.5 concentrations often exceed 100 μg/m³, and populations exposed to this environment for long periods tend to have lower antioxidant enzyme levels, leading to an exacerbation of oxidative stress.
Electron Transfer
In the human body, electron transfer mainly relies on antioxidants, especially molecules capable of donating electrons, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, and flavonoids.
Studies show that vitamin C neutralizes free radicals in the body through electron transfer, with a reaction rate of millions of times per second. Supplementing 500 mg of vitamin C per day has been shown to help reduce free radical accumulation in the body and significantly lower the risk of chronic diseases caused by free radicals, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and diabetes.
Among plant-derived antioxidants, certain flavonoids, such as quercetin, stabilize peroxy free radicals by donating two electrons, reducing their damage to DNA and lipids. One gram of quercetin supplement can neutralize about 50 micromoles of free radicals and plays an important antioxidant role in preventing cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases.
Vitamin E, as a fat-soluble antioxidant, prevents damage to cell membranes from free radicals through electron transfer. Supplementing vitamin E significantly increases antioxidant capacity in the serum and reduces lipid peroxide levels by 30%, which helps prevent arteriosclerosis and improve cardiovascular health.
Glutathione, one of the strongest antioxidants in the body, plays a vital role in clearing free radicals. The concentration of glutathione in each cell can reach 1-10 millimoles per liter. It helps clear harmful substances such as hydrogen peroxide and nitrogen oxides through a cyclical mechanism, maintaining normal cellular function.
During normal cellular metabolism, the electron transfer rate in cells can reach several thousand electrons per minute, allowing cells to effectively respond to oxidative stress triggered by environmental pollution, radiation, smoking, and other factors, thereby reducing the risks associated with aging, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases.
Certain anticancer drugs, such as cisplatin, work by involving electron transfer processes. Cisplatin can react with the DNA of cancer cells through electron transfer, inhibiting replication and inducing apoptosis.
Electron transfer also plays a role in regulating the immune system by antioxidants. Through electron transfer, antioxidants help restore immune cell function, improving their ability to clear pathogens and repair damage. After supplementing with carotenoids and vitamin C, the activity of immune cells increased by about 20%.
During exercise, a large number of free radicals are generated in the body. Supplementing with electron transfer-type antioxidants (such as vitamin C and E) can effectively neutralize these free radicals and accelerate recovery after exercise. Supplementing with vitamin C and E can reduce muscle recovery time by about 30%.
In the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, improving the electron transfer ability of antioxidant enzymes in the body can slow the progression of Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Studies show that for every 10% increase in antioxidant enzyme activity, neuronal damage can be reduced by 15%-20%.
Peroxide Clearance
Peroxide clearance mainly occurs through antioxidant enzymes such as catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). The main function of these enzymes is to break down peroxides, preventing excessive oxidative damage to cells.
In the body, approximately 10 micromoles of hydrogen peroxide are generated per minute in human cells. If not removed promptly, hydrogen peroxide will oxidize the cell membrane and damage the cell structure. In healthy adults, the activity level of catalase is usually 10 to 15 micromoles of hydrogen peroxide decomposed per second.
When the concentration of superoxide anion free radicals is too high, it leads to DNA damage in cells. In the body, there are about 5 to 10 micromoles of superoxide anion free radicals per gram of tissue, and the clearance efficiency of SOD in the body is typically 50-100 nanomoles of superoxide anions cleared per second.
Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) also plays an important role in clearing peroxides. The concentration of glutathione in the body is usually between 1 and 10 millimoles per liter, and GPx can decompose 10 to 20 micromoles of hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxides per second, with high efficiency and fast reaction speed.
Antioxidants such as vitamin C and E can help neutralize peroxides, especially when antioxidant enzyme activity is insufficient. Vitamin C can reduce the concentration of hydrogen peroxide by about 30%, which is crucial for alleviating oxidative stress on cells.
During exercise, oxygen consumption in muscle tissue increases, leading to the production of large amounts of free radicals and peroxides. After exercise, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in the body may rise by 30%-50%. Athletes supplementing 500 mg of vitamin C and 200 mg of vitamin E daily can reduce exercise-induced oxidative damage by about 40%.
With age, the activity of antioxidant enzymes in the body gradually decreases, leading to a reduced peroxide clearance efficiency and increased oxidative damage to cells. Studies have found that in people over 60 years old, the activity of catalase and SOD is about 25% lower than in younger individuals.
A study showed that the level of hydrogen peroxide in diabetic patients is about 40% higher than in the normal population. The concentration of peroxides in cancer cells is about 50% higher than in normal cells, and by regulating peroxide clearance mechanisms, scientists have explored the potential for enhancing antioxidant treatments.
People who are long-term exposed to air pollution tend to have peroxide concentrations in their bodies that are 20%-30% higher than normal, and by enhancing the body’s peroxide clearance ability, especially in regions with severe urban pollution, it is possible to effectively reduce health problems caused by pollution, such as respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
Metal Ion Chelation
The metal ion chelation mechanism plays a key role in antioxidant processes in the body. In the human body, iron binds to ferritin or transferrin to prevent it from participating in free radical reactions. Studies show that the concentration of transferrin in the blood is 2-4 grams per liter, which effectively binds and transports iron ions, preventing oxidative damage caused by excess iron ions.
A study showed that copper ions account for about 20% of the total involvement in catalytic oxidation reactions, and excessive copper ions increase oxidative damage within cells. The concentration of ceruloplasmin in the body is approximately 0.1-0.3 milligrams per milliliter, and its main function is to prevent copper ions from directly participating in reactions that cause oxidative damage.
Research shows that zinc ions, by binding with small molecules such as glutathione, help maintain the activity of antioxidant enzymes, especially superoxide dismutase (SOD). The normal concentration of zinc is generally maintained at 70-120 micrograms per milliliter, and this concentration is critical for maintaining cell stability and antioxidant function.
Studies have shown that when individuals encounter oxidative stress, the rate of metal ion chelation can increase by 20%-30%. More than 1,000 tons of lead enter the human body annually through air, soil, and water, and the accumulation of these heavy metals exacerbates free radical damage.
Clinical trials have shown that in patients treated with chelating agents for lead poisoning, the level of lead in their blood can drop by 50%-60% within 2-3 days of treatment. Iron chelators can remove more than 300 milligrams of excess iron ions from the body every year, preventing oxidative damage caused by excess iron and improving the patient’s health.
Research has shown that people who are long-term exposed to air pollution tend to have significantly higher concentrations of metal ions in their bodies, especially harmful metals like lead and cadmium. The concentration of metals like copper, iron, and zinc in these populations may be 15%-30% higher than in normal individuals.
A study showed that the concentration of iron ions in cancer cells is about 40% higher than in normal cells, and the accumulation of these metal ions can promote tumor development and metastasis. By enhancing metal ion chelation capabilities, it is possible to effectively suppress the abnormal accumulation of metal ions in cancer cells, reduce oxidative damage, and decrease tumor incidence and metastasis.
Studies have shown that after chelating agents are used to treat experimental mice, the content of heavy metals in their bodies can be reduced by more than 60% within a few days, and this method can effectively protect animals from immune system damage caused by heavy metals.
